Basic Steps

This is a quick overview of the steps, without ornamentation, and is somewhat simplified in places. For detailed descriptions of the steps, and a discussion of the evidence for their performance, see the individual sections on each step.

Some steps are described more than once, as they are done slightly differently depending on whether the music is "in 6", "in 4" or "in 3". (This is explained in the Instruction Key, and will be noted in the list of steps needed for each dance.)

The steps are all given for the left foot unless specified otherwise. For steps starting on the right foot, just reverse everything.

Warning: Any dance form can be dangerous. Warming up properly before dancing is always advised, and anyone who has injuries, or is prone to them, should be especially cautious. If the dance surface is less than optimum, such as cement or an uneven surface, this is even more true. If hopping is stressful, hops can be faked with a rise on one foot without taking off from the ground. The turns, particularly fast pivot turns, can be very damaging to knees if there is too much grip between foot and floor (such as rubber soles on cement). Instead of a pivot, the turn can be started early so that it is less abrupt.

Caveat: These aren't the same as Burgundian or 16th-century steps. As well, reconstructions of the steps vary widely. People performing the steps differently can generally still dance together, so it should not be a matter for much concern, but everyone doing dances from this repertoire should be aware that there is no one, right, way of doing them.

Quick Links To Full and Brief Descriptions

• Continenza (Brief), Full Plural = continenze, Timing = half bar.
• Contrapasso (Brief), Full Plural = contrapassii, Timing = 2/3^rd of a bar (in 6) or 1/2 bar (in 4)
• Doppio (Brief), Full, Plural = doppii, Timing = one bar
• Hey (Brief), Full, Timing varies, depending on the steps used.
• Meza Ripresa (Brief), Full, Timing = half bar or whole bar.
• Mezavolta (Brief), Full , Plural = mezevolte, Timing varies, A half-turn, done in a number of different ways.
• Movimento (Brief), Full , Plural = movimenti, Timing = half bar
• Piva (Brief), Full , Plural = pive, Timing = one bar
• Reverenza (Brief), Full , Plural = reverenze., Timing = one bar (usually)
• Ripresa (Brief), Full , Timing = one bar.
• Ripresa Portugalese (Brief), Full
• Ripresa in Volta Full
• Saltarello (Brief), Full , Plural = saltarelli, Timing = one bar
• Saltarello Tedesco (Brief), Full , Plural = saltarelli tedesci, Timing = one bar, always in 4 in these dances.
• Sempio (Brief), Full , Plural = sempii, Timing = half bar
• Volta del Gioioso (Brief), Full , Timing = two bars, always in 6.
• Volta in Piva Full
• Voltatonda (including Volta del Gioioso (Brief), Full Timing = varies, Plural = voltetonde Timing = two bars (usually)

Brief Step Descriptions

Continenza, Plural = continenze, Timing = half bar

In 4: 1 = Rise on toes and step slightly to left. 2 = Shift weight to left and lower to flat position.

In 6: 1 = Rise on toes. 2 = Step slightly to left. 3 = Lower to flat position.

Contrapasso, Plural = contrapassii, Timing = 2/3^rd of a bar (in 6) or 1/2 bar (in 4)

In 4: 1 = Step left. and = Step right. 2 = Step left. and = Step right, under left heel.

In 6: 1 = Step left. 2 = Step right. 3 = Step left. 4 = Step right, under left heel.

Doppio, Plural = doppii, Timing = one bar
In 4:	1 = Step forward on left.	2 = Step forward on right.
	3 = Step forward on left.	4 = None.
In 6:	1 = Step forward on left.	2 = None.	3 = Step forward on right.
	4 = Step forward on left.	5 = None.	6 = None.

Hey, Timing varies, depending on the steps used.

Three people weave around each other in a figure-eight pattern, ending where they started.

Meza Ripresa, Timing = half bar or whole bar. (This is a type of ripresa, discussed in the Ripresa section that follows.)
In 4:	1 = Step sideways on left.		2 = None.
	3 = Put right toes under left heel.		4 = None.
In 6:	1 = Step sideways on left.	2 = None.	3 = None.
	4 = Put right toes under left heel.	5 = None.	6 = None.
In 3:	1 = Step sideways on left.	2 = None.	3 = Put right toes under left heel.

Mezavolta, Plural = mezevolte, Timing varies, A half-turn, done in a number of different ways.

If "Mezavolta" is followed by other steps in brackets, use those steps to do a half-turn

It is otherwise a one-beat pivot turn added to the end of another step. This will be indicated by using "ending with". The foot given is the foot on which the pivot takes place, and the direction of turn. (I.e. a Mezavolta Right is done pivoting on the right foot, and turning to the right, or clockwise.)
For example: Doppio Right ending with Mezavolta Right means:

In 4:	1 = Step right.	2 = Step left.
	3 = Step right.	4 = Pivot on right foot, 180 degrees, clockwise.

A saltarello tedesco ending in a mezavolta has a pivot turn after the very last step (or with the last step, as there is very little time). For example:

Saltarello Tedesco Left ending with Mezavolta Left means:

In 4:	1 = Step left.	2 = Step right.
	3 = Step left.	4 = Step right sideways, then put left toes under right heel, and pivot counterclockwise on left foot. (Or turn while stepping on left foot.)

A saltarello ending with a mezavolta has the turn done during the hop. For example:

Saltarello Left ending with Mezavolta Left means:

In 6:	1 = Step left.	2 = None.	3 = Step right.
	4 = Step left.	5 = None.	6 = Turn 180 degrees counterclockwise, with a hop on left.

Movimento, Plural = movimenti, Timing = half bar

Rise on toes, directing attention at partner (or appropriate person in dance), then return to flat position, with weight equally on both feet.

Piva, Plural = pive, Timing = one bar

(This step is very like a doppio, but done twice as fast.)

Reverenza, Plural = reverenze., Timing = one bar (usually)

Move left foot back and kneel, part way down, on left knee, keeping the upper body straight.

Ripresa, Timing = one bar.

Ripresa Portugalesa

This is done as a normal ripresa except that it is done on a diagonal instead of straight sideways.

(Meza Ripresa, see above, before Mezavolta)

Saltarello, Plural = saltarelli, Timing = one bar

Turn around in a little circle, counterclockwise, using:

Sempio Right, Sempio Left ending in a Mezavolta Left, and Ripresa Right.

1st bar:	1 = Step on the right, toward the left side, making a quarter turn..
	2-3 = None.
	4 = Step on the left, toward the left side, making another quarter turn.
	5 = None.
	6 = Pivot on the left foot a half-circle counterclockwise.
2nd bar:	1 = Step sideways on right.
	2 = None.
	3 = Put left foot under right heel.
	4 = Step sideways again on right.
	5-6 = None.

Voltatonda (including Volta del Gioioso), Timing = varies, Plural = voltetonde Timing = two bars (usually)

Turn completely around in a little circle, using the steps and direction given in brackets afterward.

Full Step Descriptions

Continenza, Plural = continenze, Timing = half bar.

Give your attention to your partner. The movement is subdued. While shifting weight, think of pushing into the floor, rather than swaying in the breeze.

Meze continenze appear in the Sc versions of Gelosia and Fia Guielmina. Since Sc seems to use continenza to sometimes mean two continenze, a meza continenza may merely be what other sources would call a continenza. Or it may indicate that the continenza can actually be divided in half, so the step is more complicated than is suggested in this reconstruction. Preste continenze are found in the second version of Fia Guielmina in Rvat, where they occur following and in the same bar as a doppio. This is in quadernaria, and may be part of a description of a saltarello tedesco. (See the Saltarello Tedesco section for more on this step.)

The continenza is not described in the Italian sources. The meaning of the word continenza, as it relates to dance, is not certain, but its general meaning, being continence, suggests a movement that is subdued rather than flamboyant. As Ingrid Brainard notes, the continenza is described in Ngm in the dance Mercasan as "die continentz oder ploBpelg", and in Bellregwerd as "plospelg treten", which indicates (by 1517, anyhow), that the step was performed in a way similiar to treading on a bellows, which leads to a reconstruction of the step as being mostly an up-and-down motion.(4) The step sequence of two continenze is related to the Burgundian branle, which, as Brainard notes, Arena describes as not having any movement of the feet.(5) Cornazano mentions that, when doing bassadanze, the riprese and continenze should be differentiated by size.(6) This may mean that the two are performed in the same manner, and are only different in the amount of time that they take, and perhaps the space that they cover. Or it may be that after doing a large ripresa, the next one should be small, and similarly, after a large continenza, a small continenza should be done. The latter interpretation has been taken in this manual, and it therefore suggests that the continenze do actually cover some ground (although it is possible only the amount of rise is to vary.)

When more than one continenza appear, the foot on which they are done seems to alternate. This is specified in a few cases(7) but more often it is just stated that they begin on a certain foot, or that they are on that foot. In the latter case it could mean that all the continenze are done on that foot, e.g. two continenze left in a row, rather than continenza left then continenza right; however, it is probably just a matter of wording, as they seem to be used interchangeably.(8) Often the foot used for the continenza is not given at all, but comparing the feet on which the previous step and the following step are done leads to the conclusion that the norm is for the feet of two continenze to be alternating.(9) However, two continenze can be done on the same foot, as occurs in Flandesca in PnG,(10) so the step reconstruction should be one that can be performed twice in one direction. A quick change of weight back to the first foot will suffice in this case.

The choreographic intent of two continenze seems to be the same as a reverenza, or the sequence of two movimenti. In all three of these cases, there seems to be no resulting movement; that is, at the end of a reverenza, or two continenze, or two movimenti, the dancers will be in the same places as where they started. The foot the weight is on at the end of doing any of these sequences is the same as when starting (as occurs, for instance, when doing two sempii, but unlike a doppio or ripresa, where it will be the other foot). As well, the reverenza and continenze seem to be used somewhat interchangeably. In some dances where one version has two continenze, other sources have one or two reverenze.(11) Sc often adds two continenze to the beginning of dances, where one would expect a reverenza to occur. The dance Meshina uses a continenza in a way very similar to a reverenza, the woman doing a continenza to each of the men in turn, touching their hands while she does so. Continenze only replace movimenti in the Vnm version of Leoncello. This interchangeability of continenze and reverenze suggests that the continenze were also performed with the focus directed at one's partner.

It is unclear if the continenze were ornamented with extra movements. They are not mentioned specifically as having ornaments, but Cornazano does say that various steps, including the continenza, should be performed in diverse ways.(12) This may indicate different ornaments were added, or that the step could vary in some other way. In keeping with the generally understated mood of the step, specific ornaments have not been included in the reconstruction. Continenze should be done with a rising motion.(13) The usual shoulder shading is not specifically mentioned, but Cornazano seems to require it for all the steps.(14)

In these dances, contrapassi done in 4/4 time will always occur in a sequence of three, taking one and a half bars in total. There is sometimes a step specified for the remaining half bar; otherwise just bring the feet together and pause with weight on both, or add an ornament, as desired.

The contrapasso isn't mentioned in PnD, PnA or PnG, but a sequence of doppii all on the same foot is used where other sources use contrapassi. It is presumed in this manual that the contrapasso and doppio on one foot are identical. Cornazano includes the contrapasso as one of the natural movements,(15) where it is given a timing of three contrapassi in two tempi.(16)

Because the timing of the contrapasso is given as three occuring in two tempi, it seems that they were usually expected to occur in sets of three. They also occur in pairs,(17) where they seem to usually take one and a half bars, and in sets of four. NYp has nearly all the examples of contrapssi done in sets of four, which usually replace the sequences of three contrapassi found in other sources.(18)

The contrapasso is not described, and is probably the most difficult step to reconstruct. The name, counter step, is probably on account of it being counter to the music, but may indicate something about its actual movement. Because some sources refer to it as a doppio, it is presumably relatively close in execution to that step, probably with three steps forward. As contrapassi occurring in sequence are done all starting on the same foot, each contrapasso has no resultant change of weight. (i.e. the same foot is free at the end of the step as was used to begin it, unlike a normal doppio where it is the other foot which is free at the end.) This leads to a reconstruction of the contrapasso as having three steps, with an extra motion used in order to change weight. The extra motion chosen was a cut, stepping behind the foot used for the third step. (Another possible reconstruction takes note of the fact that the ripresa is also sometimes done in a sequence all on one foot. In this manual it is called a meza ripresa, and reconstructed as being part of a ripresa. A matching contrapasso would then be only part of a doppio, such as only two steps instead of three, without an extra step needed to change step.)

Putting this version of the contrapasso into bassadanza time proves quite easy, as the four movements of the three contrapassi match the twelve beats of two bars. Instead of the usual rhythm of the doppio in bassadanza, the steps are all equal, which makes the step counter to the usual rhythm, but quite easy to perform. Quadernaria proves much less tractable. Putting one movement per beat results in three contrapassi lasting three bars instead of the two alloted. Doubling the speed of the contrapasso means that the three contrapassi fit in one and a half bars of quadernaria, leaving a full half-bar empty. This unfortunately results in the contrapasso no longer being in a counter rhythm, and really has no need of being described as taking two bars for three, which is pretty damning evidence against it. However, PnD, when giving the amount of time that each step takes, says that this is for bassadanza.(19) While Rvat does not say this for his step durations, it is perhaps only in bassadanza tempo that contrapassi are performed three in two tempi.

Our reconstruction is very far from certain, but we decided upon it for ease of performance more than anything else. It is to be noted more strongly than usual that this step has as many possible reconstructions as people attempting to decipher it, and any solution chosen can be summarily rejected by perusing the sources.

None of the sources mentions a rising motion, shoulder shading, or extra ornamentation being appropriate. Because the contrapasso seems to be considered as a type of doppio, and because the rising and shading are appropriate for the doppio, we include them in the contrapasso. Our reconstruction leaves no time left over after a single contrapasso, so we presume that no extra ornament would be used. The only exception is at the end of a sequence in quadernaria.

The doppio can be decorated with the addition of the ornamental steps, especially the frappamento,(26) and should be done in different ways.(27) The doppio is done with a rising motion and shoulder shading.(28)

When done in quadernaria tempo, a doppio may have been understood to always mean a saltarello tedesco.

However, it seems that a doppio without the characteristic frappamento or ripressetta of the saltarello tedesco was also used in quadernaria,(29) so the instructions for an ordinary doppio in quadernaria are included. (See also the Saltarello Tedesco section.)

The doppio portugalese occurs occasionally,(30) but is presumably a normal doppio done at an angle. (See the Ripresa section for information for the ripresa portugalese.)

A sequence of doppii all on one foot seems to be equivalent to the contrapasso, and is covered in that section.

The doppio gallopato occurs in Partita Crudele in Sc, and in Vita di Cholino and Fioretto in NYp. In the versions of Fioretto which occur in Sc and MOe, these doppii gallopate are doppii, so the doppio gallopato is probably similar to a normal doppio, traveling about the same distance. A galloppo is possibly the same step, and occurs in Gelosia, Ingrata, Malgratiosa and Mignota (the version for three dancers), all in Sc, and is also mentioned in the list of things to know for dancing in Sc (line 1330). For a reconstruction of the doppio gallopato, see the notes for the dance Vita di Cholino.

For an unusual description of a doppio, which seems to include three steps forward and two steps back, see Petite Rose in PnD and NYp.

A hey is a figure where three people (in these dances) weave around each other, following figure-eight patterns, and return to their original place at the end. The steps used vary, and will be given in each case. They do not necessarily match the number of exchanges; for example, the hey may be accomplished with eight pive, but there are only six changes. This just means that the dancers are moving continuously and passing each other at regular intervals that do not coincide exactly with the steps.

Starting Position

For this explanation, the hey will be described as being done by Man 1, Man 2 and Woman (in the center), starting from a triangular position. A hey can also start from a single-file position, where the first person starts by turning around to pass the center person by the right shoulder.

The First Exchange

The person in the center (Woman) starts the hey by passing right shoulders with the person on the right (Man 1).

The Second Exchange

Then Man 1 passes left shoulders with Man 2.

Then Man 2 passes right shoulders with Woman. Woman has returned to the center, but Man 1 and Man 2 are in each other's original places. Half of the hey has been accomplished now, and sometimes only this much is done. It will then be called a half-hey.

The Third Exchange

Then Man 1 passes left shoulders with Woman.

The Fourth Exchange

Man 1 passes right shoulders with Man 2.

The Fifth Exchange

The Final Exchange

Man 2 passes left shoulders with Woman. She moves rather wide to return to her original place in the triangle. The two men have also returned to their original places.

A hey or hey-like weaving figure is quite common in these dances. The term "hey" is not used in the sources, it being borrowed from English country-dance terminology. The manuals usually refer to it either as a fish spine (spinapescie, such as in Giove in NYp and others), or a snake (bissa or biscia, in Vita di Cholino in NYp), which is also used to describe one person weaving around other stationary people such as in Tesara and Pizocara. Both of these terms are used together in Graziosa in NYp, while Rossina in NYp uses spinapescie where PnA has bissia for the corresponding section in Voltati in Ca Rosina. The term braid (treccia), which is used in Se No Dormi Dona Ascholtta in Fl, may also be a hey.

The mezavolta is a half-turn (or occasionally a turn of a different size, but this will be noted), and can be done either while performing another step, such as a doppio done in a half circle, or added to another step, such as a doppio which is straight, as normal, but on the last beat has a pivot added. The following examples do not include the style details or ornamental movements of the step used, which we expect would be included, but just show how the turn fits into the basic step.

If "Mezavolta" is followed by other steps in brackets, use those steps to do a half-turn. For example ;

Mezavolta (Sempio Right, Sempio Left, Counterclockwise) means:

In 6:	1,2,3 = Step with right foot (crossing it in front of the left foot), turning 90 degrees counterclockwise.
	4,5,6 = Step with left foot, doing another quarter-turn to the left.

If it is added to the end of a step, it will be notated by using "ending with". This will be a one-beat pivot turn, done on the foot given, in that direction. (I.e. a Mezavolta Right is done pivoting on the right foot, and turning to the right, or clockwise.) For example:

Doppio Right ending with Mezavolta Right means:

In 4:	1 = Step right.
	2 = Step left.
	3 = Step right.
	4 = Pivot on right foot, 180 degrees, clockwise.

Important Warning: When the upper body swings around in a pivot turn, the foot is supposed to move with it. This works fine for a dancer wearing proper dancing shoes, with a smooth leather sole, on a slippery surface such as wood or marble. If the contact between the foot and floor has too much grip, such as on carpet or cement, or when wearing rubber-soled shoes, there is a definite risk of the upper body pivoting while the foot stays still, resulting in damage to the knee or ankle. When dancing in less then optimum conditions, or for anyone who already has knee or ankle problems, it is better to start the mezavolta early and turn more gradually, such as using the last step of a doppio to do a quarter-turn, and then doing only a quarter-pivot.

Similarly, a saltarello tedesco ending in a mezavolta has a pivot turn after the very last step (or with the last step, as there is very little time). For example:

Saltarello Tedesco Left ending with Mezavolta Left means:

In 4:	1 = Step left.
	2 = Step right.
	3 = Step left.
	4 = Step right sideways, then put left toes under right heel and pivot counterclockwise on left foot. (Or turn as the last step is taken on the left foot.)

For a saltarello ending with a mezavolta the turn will be done as part of the hop; thus, it is not done as a pivot but is still done in the direction of the foot given. For example:

Saltarello Left ending with Mezavolta Left means:

In 6:	1 = Step left.
	2 = None.
	3 = Step right.
	4 = Step left.
	5 = None.
	6 = Hop on left, turning 180 degrees counterclockwise.

Note that sometimes one person will end with a mezavolta even if that dancer had not taken a step earlier in that measure. This will be in conjunction with someone else doing a step, so while it may look like a mistake was made, it just indicates that the person turning is doing his mezavolta on the last beat. For example:

Man Doppio Left as Woman ends with a Mezavolta Right means:

In 4:	1 = Man steps left.
	2 = Man steps right.
	3 = Man steps left.
	4 = Woman pivots clockwise on her right foot.

The sources differ on how long a mezavolta takes; PnD says half a tempo(31) while Rvat says one.(32) This difference probably stems from the number of different ways in which the mezavolta is performed. Mezevolte taking only a quarter tempo are actually the most common,(33) being added to another step (most often to the end of a doppio or the beginning of a ripresa). Which step the mezavolta is part of is sometimes unclear, such as when a mezavolta occurs between a doppio and a ripresa,(34) so it is probable that even when not mentioned it is being done on the upbeat, which can be considered part of the step before it or after it. In our reconstructions we have silently moved all such mezevolte to the end of the previous step, even if the source notates it as happening at the beginning of the following step.

Because a mezavolta which is part of another step has to be done in one beat, a pivot turn is most likely; in these cases the foot given is the one on which to pivot.(35) Probably the most common mezavolta is one where it is added to the beginning of a ripresa. These were done so often that they developed a separate name, being ripresa in volta. This step is discussed further in the Ripresa section. The other usual place for a mezavolta is at the end of a doppio, but a mezavolta can also occur at the end of a saltarello,(36) saltarello tedesco,(37) or sempio;(38) in the middle of a saltarello;(39) or at the beginning of a reverenza.(40) Sometimes they are jumped, as in Corona in PnD and Crudela, Febus, and Reale in FOLj. In the last two examples, the same dances in other sources do not mention the mezavolta being jumped, so it is perhaps a variation. The mezavolta at the end of a saltarello would occur as a hop (if the salto of the saltarello is actually at the end). Possibly a jumped mezavolta is correct for all cases, instead of a pivot. Because the method for doing the turn is not usually mentioned it may have been left to the dancer; a pivot turn might be more in keeping with a section of bassadanza time, while a jumped turn would be more appropriate in piva or saltarello time.

Mezevolte that take a full bar are rarer; they are sometimes given as being performed with another step, and sometimes with no other step mentioned. In the latter case, using whatever step is characteristic of the tempo in which the mezavolta occurs seems appropriate. When a step is given with the mezavolta, the turn might be meant to take place throughout the entire step, be performed at the end or beginning, or even be done partway through the step as a pivot. A full-bar mezevolta takes place as a doppio,(41) as two sempii,(42) as a tempo of piva,(43) and as a tempo of bassadanza.(44)

There is no specific mention of the mezavolta being done with the usual rising motion and shoulder shading that normally seem to be added to steps. For a one-beat mezavolta these embellishments would not really be possible, and a mezavolta done with another step could have the embellishments that would normally appear with that step. Similarly, it doesn't seem likely that an extra ornamental movement was added to a one-beat mezavolta, although it is mentioned in PnD that when doing a mezavolta at the end of a doppio, the ornamental movement to use is the scorso.(45) This is perhaps the actual step used to perform that mezavolta, rather than something added after it. If so, it is likely an indication of how the one-beat mezavolta was performed.

There is a "mezavolta sincopata" in Foglie di Guiglielmo in Sc, and a "mezavoltta in passo falso" in Moza di Bischare, in Fl.

Rise on toes, directing attention at partner (or appropriate person in dance), then return to flat position with weight equally on both feet.

The movimento is also referred to as a scosso or scossetto, sometimes all three terms being used in the same source.(46) PnD uses only movimento, while later sources also or exclusively use scosso or scossetto. Ngm, from 1517, uses the term allzada instead. It may be that the performance of the step changed over time, along with its name. Movimento suggests a movement of some type; scosso suggests a shake, or possibly to brandish something;(47) and allzada suggests a rise or movement forward.(48)

The timing of the movimento is given as half a tempo in PnD,(49) but according to Cornazano there is no rule.(50) They can take a full tempo, as they do at the end of Leoncello (vecchio) and in Fia Guielmina (the first version), but usually two of them are done in one tempo. A "poco de movimento", occurring at the end of a doppio, and apparently taking a quarter bar, occurs in Fia Guielmina (the second version), and later a sempio also has a movimento added to it, in the NYp version of the dance. Cornazano states that they are only done in ballitti.(51) Movimenti are nearly always done in pairs,(52) first performed by one person and then responded to by another. (Sometimes more than one person does each movimento, such as in Anello and Legiadra.) It is clear from the way that they are described, as performance and response, that the movimento was used as communication, so, when doing a movimento, one should direct attention toward one's partner. The movimento should be done with a rising motion.(53)

In Anello in PnD, the men are instructed to do a movimento, and the women to respond with "uno altro possa". This possa is clearly instead of or the same as a movimento, and may give a hint to its performance.

The instructions for the movimento never include any mention of which foot is used, so it seems likely that no foot movement is involved. The foot after and the foot before can be either, so it doesn't shift weight from one to the other foot as a sempio would, or stay on the same foot as a reverenza would.(54) Rising on both feet allows for these two requirements, and incorporates aire. However it is just aire, so there should be more to the step. Scosso suggests that something is shaken, perhaps a shake of the shoulders, a toss of the head, or even a wave of the hand, agreeing with the meaning of allzada of brandishing. The reconstruction chosen, that of a quick rise onto the toes, is probably only partially correct.

Like passo, the word movimento seems to mean both a specific dance step and a general term for a movement. It can sometimes be unclear which is intended. PnD often specifies a movimento which is done at the beginning of a sequence of saltarelli, but we believe this has to do with the performance of the saltarello. Other sources leave out this movimento, and it hasn't been considered in the discussion of the movimento as a step unit. However, it may well be that both meanings of the movimento were related, and this can shed light on the performance of the movimento step.(55) It is quite possible that the movimento used in the description of the difference between bassadanza and quadernaria refers to a shift in weight up and forward, and that the movimento as a step was also this surging forward, as if about to take a step, without the feet actually moving forward. This would also agree with allzada meaning an advancing.

The piva is not listed as a step(56) and is given in the balli as a certain number of tempi di piva. It is one of the four meters in which music can be written, and is also a type of dance that is performed independently. For this manual, the word piva is used as if it is a step, using it instead of "tempo di piva", or "a doppio done in piva style".

How a piva step is to be performed is explained, in the manuscripts, as badly as most other steps. It seems that the step is some version of the doppio, but it may not be just three steps forward, as Cornazano says "Piva non e altro che passi doppi atteggiati e accelerati per presteca di misura ..."(57) The atteggiati might just refer to it being modified to suit the piva tempo; however, in order to make the step more distinct, we originally chose a reconstruction with the second step cutting under the front foot. This is possibly supported by a description in the dance Ingrata in PnG where a saltarello, probably a saltarello tedesco, is described as "un doppio sul sinistro et una ripresa sul dritto indrieto a guisa di piva". Because a ripresa may have been done, at least some of the time, with the second foot moving under the first, describing it as being like a piva suggests that the piva may also have been done this way. The piva step also seems to often travel about two-thirds the distance of a normal doppio,(58) which easily fits the step-cut-step described above. Unfortunately, there are other dances where a piva has to cover considerably more ground,(59) so we were forced to reject this reconstruction. Instead we replaced the second foot cutting under the first with it being placed beside the first, or ahead when needed. We still have a sneaking fondness for the cutting-under method, and can be caught doing it that way when the distance to be covered is not great.

There is no mention of the piva specifically being performed with a rising motion, shoulder shading, or with the addition of extra, ornamental movements, but these are presumably all included as they are expected with the doppio, which the piva is considered to be. Cornazano does mention that they are done, by the man at least, with "scambitti e salti",(60) and moving in different directions, so some improvisation was obviously expected. This would undoubtedly be true in a piva dance and probably could also be used in a long section of piva in a ballo, but is less likely to have occurred in a section with only a few tempi of piva.

Gelosia in PnA, PnG, Fn, and Fl have "quattro tempi di piva todesca" , each taking twice as long as a regular piva; other sources, such as PnD and NYp, have eight tempi of piva in the same place. This is possibly a saltarello tedesco which takes two bars of piva to perform. (See the Saltarello Tedesco section for more on that step.)

Move left foot back and kneel, part-way down, on the left knee. It isn't usually necessary to go far enough down to actually make contact with the floor. Keep your upper body straight. Your focus should be on your partner (or the person to whom the reverenza is being made).

The reverenza is listed as one of the natural movements in PnD, but it is not specified in Rvat. Its duration is given as one tempo,(61) but occasionally shorter ones occur. Sometimes these are added to the end of a doppio(62) or contrapasso (see the Contrapasso section), and sometimes they take up a half tempo.(63)

An instruction for a reverenza usually includes a foot, even when the instructions are for a woman alone.(64) This means that a reverenza that includes no foot movement, such as a bow from the waist or curtsey in first position, is not what is intended. A reverenza does not result in a transfer of weight, as, following a reverenza, the next step will be on the same foot.(65) The foot that is given is the one that moves, while the other bears the weight. The free foot moves backward, as Pizochara in PnD has "riverentia cum lo pe drito indrieto" where a riverenza right would be expected from the step that follows. Kneeling on one knee is in keeping with these restrictions. This is apparently not done all the way to the floor in normal cases, as it is sometimes specified that a reverenza is done to, or close to, the floor,(66) including for women.

There are several unusual references to different reverences which may give some hints about the performance of the reverenza. One type mentioned is the inchino, which occurs in Humana (in Sc), and in Giove (in NYp) as an "ichino in tera". The name suggests that there is an inclination of the head or body, but the step can still be performed to the ground, so it is not a bow from the waist. Kneeling on one knee, while inclining the head or trunk, seems likely. It does suggest that the normal reverenza is performed without bending the head or torso.

In Fl, the dance Se No Dormi Dona Ascholtta has "fano gratia l'uno al altro coe una puta di pe". In Iupiter this is explained as "gratia ...coe una riverenzetta", while Mastri di Tromboni has "dua riverezette chol pie mancho inanzi un altra ritira el medesimo pie indreto". Fortuna in NYp has a "riverenza picina in sulla punta del pie", and Angelosa, also in NYp, has a "riverenzia picina in sula punta del pie mancho". Also, Rosina in NYp has a description of what is presumably a reverence, being "metino il pie mancho inanzi e chal in giu tutti infino in tera e fermin si alla punta del pie mancho".(67) Because both of these sources are later, it seems that a new type of reverenza, still needing to be described or termed differently than the usual reverenza, was developing. This is probably closer to the reverenza of the later 16th century, which sometimes includes a foot movement forward. Because the reverenza done to the floor is also from these sources, it, also, might then be a different type of reverence. However, it retains the use of the word reverenza, implying that it is done the same as a normal reverenza, just being performed to a different degree. It is also possible that a normal reverenza was done to the floor, and that using the term riverenza in tera was to distinguish the normal reverence from the newer inchino, gratia, or riverezette.

The reverenza is choreographically related to the continenza and the movimento. See the Continenza section for more on the relationship.

Plural = riprese. Timing = one bar.

A ripresa is done as follows:

In 4:	1 = Step sideways on the left, bringing left shoulder slightly forward.
	2 = Put right toes under left heel, rising slightly.
	3 = Step sideways on the left, rising slightly more.
	4 = Lower, and bring shoulders even. Add ornament as desired.
In 6:	1 = Step sideways on the left, bringing left shoulder slightly forward.
	2 = Rise slightly.
	3 = Put right toes under left heel, rising slightly more.
	4 = Step sideways on the left, rising slightly more.
	5 = None.
	6 = Lower to flat position, with shoulders even. Add ornament as desired.

When doing more than one ripresa in bassadanza tempo, the size can be varied.

Ripresa Portugalesa

This is done as a normal ripresa, except on a diagonal, moving at a 45-degree angle instead of straight sideways.

Meza Ripresa

In 4:	1 = Step sideways on the left, moving left shoulder slightly forward.
	2 = Rise slightly on toes.
	3 = Step on right foot, putting it under left heel.
	4 = Lift left foot and lower to flat, shoulders even, adding ornament as desired.
In 6:	1 = Step sideways on the left, moving left shoulder slightly forward.
	2 = Start rising on toes.
	3 = Continue to rise slightly.
	4 = Step on right foot, putting it under left heel.
	5 = Lift left foot into the air slightly.
	6 = Lower to flat, shoulders even, adding ornament as desired.

Meze riprese occur in half a bar of 6/8 music in our reconstruction of the dance Tesara. They will have three beats of music, are referred to as being "in 3", and are done there as follows:

In 3:	1= Step sideways on flat left foot, moving left shoulder slightly forward.
	2 = Rise slightly on toes.
	3 = Step on right foot, putting it under left heel, and lift left foot to prepare for the next step.

Aside from the ripresa itself, there are three other varieties of ripresa used in this manual, being the ripresa in volta (not used in the dance instructions but only in notes), ripresa portugalesa, and meza ripresa. The ripresa in volta is done while turning, the ripresa portugalesa is at an angle, and the meza ripresa usually occurs when there is a sequence done all in one direction rather than alternating. These three variations will be discussed in more detail below.

The ripresa takes one tempo.(68) Shorter riprese occur as part of the description of the saltarello tedesco (see the section on Saltarello Tedesco), and riprese larghe do occur in Ingrata, in PnG and others, but seem to take no more time than a normal ripresa. Usually the riprese alternate feet, with the exception of the meza ripresa. An example of what may be normal riprese which do not alternate occurs in Raia in Sc.

The ripresa was evidently a well-understood step, as it is not described in the sources. In order to create a reconstruction of the step, it is therefore necessary to look at quite small pieces of evidence. It seems to be a sideways step, as couples separate from each other with one or more riprese in Tesara, Mercantia, Sobria, and Pizocara, all in PnD. However, these examples may actually be a slightly different step, perhaps what would be better termed as a ripresa in traverso. (This is discussed more under meza ripresa, below.) Because they are also called riprese, if described slightly differently, it is hoped that the general movement is very similar, but it is always possible that the normal ripresa was not actually done sideways. If this is the case, it must have been a step with no resultant movement.(69) A possible reconstruction for such a ripresa, on the left, would be to step backwards on the left foot, put the right beside it, and then step forward on the left.

The dance Angiola in Sc has "il secondo fa el simile che e in sul pie stancho in forma di riprese muovino li piedi quatro volte cioe l'uno pie socto l'altro". It is unclear exactly what is going on here, and what part of it corresponds to a normal ripresa, but it suggests that one foot under the other may have been the characteristic motion of a ripresa. This certainly occurs in riprese in the next century.(70)

In the dance Prexonera, where PnD has "passitti quatro", PnG has "tre passetti" and NYp has "una ripresa". This occurs where the motion is being made in an unusual direction, perhaps drawing apart sideways or backwards. It may be equivalent to a ripresa portugalesa. But it does suggest that the motion of a ripresa consists of something that could be seen as three or four steps.

The distance that is covered by a ripresa portugalesa seems to be the same as two or three steps taken forward.(71) Even if the ripresa portugalesa is done at a 90-degree angle to a normal ripresa, it must cover a greater distance than is possible with just one step sideways. If the normal ripresa is done identically to the ripresa portugalesa, with the exception of direction, then it too must cover approximately the same distance.(72)

With this evidence, it seems that the ripresa consists of three or four movements of the feet, moving some distance sideways, and having one foot placed under another. A reconstruction chosen to match these requirements consists of a step sideways, the second foot placed under the first, and the first foot moved sideways again. Placing the second foot under, rather than beside, the first foot is the least-supported part of the reconstruction, and it may be a rare or later variation. It is included as it has been found to work well when actually doing the dances, making the undagiarre, in particular, very natural.

The ripresa can be ornamented with the addition of short, extra steps(73) and should be done in different ways.(74) Cornazano also says that the ripresa and continenza should vary in size when done in bassadanza,(75) which probably indicates that two riprese done in sequence should be different sizes, although it might indicate that ripresa and continenza are similar enough that they should be differentiated with the size they take. They should be done with the usual rising motion(76) but there is no explicit mention of shoulder shading. However, Cornazano indicates its general use,(77) so the ripresa is probably included.

The ripresa ghalopata and the ripresa franzesse both occur in the sources, but are not used in any of the dances in this manual. The ripresa ghalopata can be found in Chastelana, Fioretto and Fortunosa in NYp, while riprese franzesse occur in Bassa Franzesse, Bialre di Chastiglia, and Fraza Mignion Franzesse in NYp and as "ripresette ala franzese" in Bassa di Schastiglia in Fl.

Meza Ripresa

In this manual the term meza ripresa is used for a step which seems to have been referred to in the sources as a ripresa on one foot,(78) meza ripresa, or just ripresa.(79) What distinguishes this step from a normal ripresa is that it does not have a resultant change of weight; that is, after a meza ripresa left, the next step will also be on the left. They often take a full tempo, although when used in the saltarello tedesco they only take a quarter tempo. The use of meza, meaning half, to describe them suggests that only part of the movement of a normal ripresa is included.(80) Unlike a ripresa portugalesa, they only travel a distance of about one step each.(81) Therefore, the first half of the normal ripresa is used for this step.

Ripresa Portugalese

The ripresa portugalese, also known as ripresa sul or in gallone, is a ripresa done on an angle(82) and can move forward, as they do in Spero, or backward, as in Damnes, or turning around, as in Venus, and in a sequence with a number of them done on one foot, as in Caterva. It is not certain how extreme the angle is, but one of 45 degrees seems to work well.

Ripresa in Volta

The ripresa in volta, which Sc includes in a list of things to know for dancing,(83) is a ripresa done with a mezavolta. It is probably nothing more than a ripresa with a pivot turn on the upbeat, as the mezavolta can appear either at the end of the preceding step or incorporated into the ripresa in volta.(84) It is possible, however, that the turn was actually accomplished throughout the entire ripresa. We have not included it as a seperate term in the dance instructions, but have silently converted all occurences of it into a mezavolta on the end of the previous step followed by a normal ripresa, in order to lessen the number of dance terms to learn. We have included it in the notes, however, because of its regular usage in the sources and because the step sequence, even if not always termed a ripresa in volta, is so common.

(The hop is actually begun on the end of beat 3, landing on beat 4, but it is easier to teach it as if the hop is on beat 4. People will naturally take off earlier and land on the beginning of beat 4.)

In 6:	1 = Step forward on left, bringing left shoulder slightly forward.
	2 = Rise slightly.
	3 = Step forward on right, rising slightly more.
	4 = Step forward on left, lowering in order to prepare for hop.
	5 = Hop into the air on left foot.
	6 = Land on left, with shoulders even.

(When teaching the saltarello in 6, it is easier to merely say that the hop is on beat 6, without

mentioning when people hop into the air or land. Most people will then take off on the 5^th and

land on the 6^th beat with less confusion than if it is explained.)

There are, fortunately, a number of descriptions of the saltarello. In PnD it is given as being a doppio with a salteto,(86) while in Vnm it is described as "El Saltarelo uno paso dopio el salto che si suso un pe' quale su' latto".(87) From this it seems that the saltarello consists of three steps and a hop, with the hop done on the foot that begins the step. Cornazano does not specify a hop, instead saying "consiste solo di passi doppi ondeggiato per relevamento del secondo passo curto che batte in meco del uno tempo e l'altro ...".(88) It is possible that the ondeggiato is in place of a hop, or it may only have been the usual rising motion used in the steps. If the latter, it is unclear whether the hop was excluded from Cornazano's saltarello, or if it was presumed that everyone knew it was to occur. From his description of the normal doppio(89) it is clear that this second short step is the second of the three steps, so it seems odd that it is described as being in the middle of one tempo and the next, which would seem to mean at the up-beat at the very end. Presumably he is describing the weak beat at the end of the first half of the bar. This reconstruction presumes that it is a rise that is being described here, not a hop, and that the rise only occurs on the second step, rather than continuing onto the third step, as it is necessary to lower to a flat position in order to take off for the hop.

We decided on our reconstruction, that of three steps followed by a hop, for two reasons. First, it is more consistent with other steps, such as the saltarello tedesco or a bassadanza doppio with an ornament added, as these also have first a doppio and then whatever extra step is used at the end. The other reason is that the saltarello seems to be closely related to the later galliard, which also has a hop at the end.(90) For the reconstruction, the take-off for the hop is moved onto the fifth beat, and the landing occurs on the sixth, in order to give time to complete the hop, and also because the landing more naturally falls on the stressed sixth beat than sometime after it.

There is, however, some evidence that the hop of the saltarello actually occurs on the upbeat of the previous bar. PnD stresses that the saltarello, as the bassadanza, begins on the vuodo (upbeat) rather than the pieno (downbeat),(91) and the dances Verceppe and Zoglioxa in PnD both have saltarelli that are preceded by a salto, which are perhaps explicit mentions of the hop of the saltarello. More often, saltarello sections are preceeded by a movimento(92) which, if the movimento is really a rise, is perhaps sufficiently indistinguishable from a salto. However, PnD states that the bassadanza should start with a movimento(93) and, as there is no reason to believe that bassadanza normally incorporate any sort of hop, the movimento in this case probably is closer in meaning to "movement" than to the specific movimento step. The movimento mentioned before saltarelli is likely equivalent. Although there is considerable evidence for the saltarello starting on the upbeat, we decided to keep things simpler by having all steps begin on the downbeat. Because of this we have removed the initial movimento where it appears at the beginning of saltarelli.

To confuse matters more, the saltarello sections of the music are sometimes in a 3/4 rhythm rather than 6/8.(94) Other saltarello passages show a more 6/8-style rhythm by having six eighth notes, two dotted quarter notes, or sequences of quarter-eighth-quarter-eighth. As well, Cornazano says that when a tenor is played in saltarello it should have three beats per note (Rvat line 1130), where, for instance, he says that quadernaria has four. The reconstruction of the step fits rather badly here, but it seems that any reconstruction that suits 6/8 would be as difficult to do in 3/4. Perhaps the step was performed differently in these places, or dancing counter to the rhythm of the music was enjoyed as a challenge. Or maybe the musicians discretely improvised something to keep their employers in time. We have chosen the last strategy, in order to reduce the number of things that must be learned. In places where saltarelli are called for in 3/4, we have tried to arrange the music so that a prominent part is providing the 6/8-style syncopation. See, for example, Pizocara, where parts of the music notated in 6/8 actually contain three quarter notes per measure.

Cornazano states that the saltarello is done with a rising motion (perhaps actually the hop, as discussed above), and with shoulder shading.(95) The rise is confirmed by Ambrosio.(96) There is, not surprisingly, no mention of extra movements being added to the saltarello, as, with the hop, there already is one. But Cornazano says that, when doing a saltarello, one(97) should mix in other steps as well, giving the examples of two sempii, or three contrapassi, or these two sequences in a row.(98) He later gives the steps used in the saltarello as being the sempio, ripresa, doppio, and contrapasso.(99) This is a foreshadowing of the later variations that were seen in the galliard. This improvisation would be appropriate in a saltarello dance, and therefore probably is seen in long saltarello passages of a ballo, but it is much less likely that it would be performed when there are only one or two saltarelli. Most sections of saltarello do not have a starting foot specified, and if people were expected to vary their footwork while doing them this is not surprising. We have given a starting foot in these cases, presuming that most dancers will prefer to just do the normal saltarello step, but those who wish to experiment with variations can ignore this suggestion.

1 = Step left, bringing the left shoulder forward slightly.

2 = Step right, rising slightly on toes.

3 = Step left, rising slightly more.

4 = Step right sideways, bringing shoulders even, then put left toes under right heel, raising right foot.

The next step will be flat again.

It may be that any time a doppio or saltarello is called for in quadernaria tempo, a saltarello tedesco is expected. There are cases where one source calls for a saltarello or doppio where the same dance in another source has saltarello tedesco.(101) But, because of the amount of space devoted in the manuals to explaining how the movement of one tempo could be performed in another tempo, it is likely that in most cases a "saltarello" actually means the characteristic motion of the saltarello tempo, and "doppio" a bassadanza, or unornamented, doppio. Saltarelli tedesci and a doppio are both mentioned in the same section of the dance Gratiosa in PnG, so it seems strange that different terms would be used for the same movement.

The saltarello tedesco is one of the steps which is actually described in the sources. Unfortunately, the descriptions are not identical and it is not clear if the different descriptions are different explanations of the same movement, if there are different ways of performing the step, or if the saltarello tedesco changed over time. As well, when the step is described within a dance, it might be an alternate way of doing the step, described only because it is unusual.

The step is defined in PnD as consisting of "uno dopio cum uno frapamento in uno tempo"(102) and later as "uno dopio e uno frapamento drieto alo dopio in uno tempo".(103) Cornazano explains it as "dui passi sempi & una ripresetta battuta detro el sicondo passo in traverso".(104) In the dance Jupiter in PnD, where other sources have saltarelli tedesci, quadernaria is described as "passi tri et uno afrapamento uno poco in traverso." In Prexonera in PnA, saltarello tedesco is described as "un passo doppio & una rimpresa per tempo". There are also other descriptions which may be saltarelli tedesci. At the beginning of Fia Guielmina (the first version) PnD has "tempi dui a guisa de saltarello in mexura quadernaria cioe ... passi quatro per tempo comencando dal pe sinistro e dagando el boto sul pe drito". Later in the same dance the step sequence "dui sempii comenzando al pe sinistro e una represa inanti sul galono sinistro" occurs, where Rvat calls merely for one doppio. The version of the dance in Rvat also has some interesting descriptions of steps done in quadernaria, and the second Fia Guielmina does, as well. Leoncello Vecchio in PnD has a voltatonda described as "tri sempii e una meza represa", where NYp has a "dopio in volta". Rosina in NYp starts with "duo passi dopi cholle meze riprese".

From this evidence, the saltarello tedesco seems to consist of a doppio (three steps forward), with an additional sideways movement on the fourth beat. Because the saltarello tedesco is done on alternating feet,(105) this last movement should be something that does not have a resultant weight change. (For example, if a saltarello tedesco consisted of four steps, starting on the left foot, the next movement would also have to start on the left.) Because this extra movement is sometimes given as a ripresa or ripressetta, one solution, the one chosen for this manual, is to use the same sideways step and undercutting step that our reconstruction of the ripresa begins with.

An alternate reconstruction, suggested by the description of the step being done with two sempii, is to take two steps forward and then one sideways, without an undercut.

Although the saltarello tedesco is normally done in quadernaria it can be done in other tempi, and does occur in bassadanza tempo, such as in Principessa, Consolata, and Caterva. The timing of the step in bassadanza is discussed in PnD, line 269.

The saltarello tedesco is not mentioned as specifically being done with rising motion or shoulder shading, but as they are required for a doppio, the doppio in the saltarello tedesco is probably ornamented in the same way. Because this reconstruction ends with one foot under the other's heel, ending in the normal flat position is difficult; thus, only the starting position is done flat. Extra ornamental steps would presumably not have been added, as the saltarello tedesco already has one required in its performance.

The sempio can have the short, ornamental steps added(108) and should be performed in various ways.(109) Sempii should be done with rising motion(110) and shoulder shading.(111)

It is uncertain if the shoulder shading is performed for every sempio, which is what we have decided on, or if it is continued through every pair of sempii, so that the left shoulder moves forward at the beginning of a sempio on the left foot and remains forward until a sempio right that follows is completed.(112)

Timing = two bars (usually)

A voltatonda is a complete turn and is done using other steps while moving in a small circle. The steps used will be given in brackets after the word "Voltatonda", with the direction in which the dancer is to turn. At the end of the voltatonda the dancer has returned to his starting place, unless it is otherwise stated. For example:

Voltatonda (Doppio Left, Doppio Right, counterclockwise), in 6/4 time, would be done as follows:

First do a Doppio Left.

1 = Step left, turning toward the left about 60 degrees, bringing left shoulder slightly forward.
2 = Rise slightly.
3 = Step right, turning another 60 degrees, rising slightly.
4 = Step left, turning another 60 degrees, rising slightly more.
5 = No step.
6 = Lower to flat position, shoulders even, facing opposite to original direction, and to the left of the original position.

Then do a Doppio Right.

1 = Step right, turning toward the left about 60 degrees, bringing right shoulder slightly forward.
2 = Rise slightly.
3 = Step left, turning another 60 degrees, rising slightly.
4 = Step right, turning another 60 degrees, rising slightly more.
5 = No step.
6 = Lower to flat position, shoulders even, facing original direction.

It is important to note that the voltatonda is done as a circle to the side of the dancer's original position, not in front. The correct and incorrect paths are indicated below.

Correct path

Incorrect path

A second example is one of the most common voltetonde, which is done with a doppio and takes only one bar of 4/4 time. (This is discussed below as volta in piva.)

Voltatonda (Doppio Left, counterclockwise), in 4/4 time, would be done as follows:

1 = Step left, turning toward the left about 120 degrees, bringing left shoulder slightly forward.
2 = Step right turning another 120 degrees, rising slightly.
3 = Step left turning another 120 degrees, rising slightly more.
4 = Lower to flat position, shoulders even, facing original direction.

The volta del gioioso is a voltatonda consisting of two sempii and a ripresa. It is always done starting on the right foot, turning counterclockwise, in 6/4 time, so is given here that way:

First do a sempio right

1 = Step right, to the left (so the right foot will cross in front of the body), bringing the right shoulder slightly forward, rising slightly. (Don't try to leave the left foot glued to the floor; it should turn naturally, with the rest of the body.)
2 = Rise slightly more, with the rest of the body following the turn.
3 = Lower to flat position, shoulders even.

This produces a 90-degree turn so far, and all of the body including the left leg should have made the turn. Next, do a sempio left, ending with a mezavolta left.
4 = Step left, turning to the left, bringing left shoulder slightly forward, and rising slightly.
5 = Rise slightly more, with the rest of the body following the turn.
6 = Lower to flat position, shoulders even, and pivot 180 degrees counterclockwise, on left foot.

The dancer has turned 360 degrees in total, and is about two steps farther to the (original) left of the starting position. Finish with a ripresa right.
1 = Step sideways on right, leading with right shoulder.
2 = Rise slightly.
3 = Put left toes under right heel, rising slightly more.
4 = Step sideways on the right, rising slightly more.
5 = None.
6 = Lower to flat position, with shoulders even. Add ornament as desired.

The dancer is now in the starting position, ready to move the left foot for the next step.

The voltatonda is a complete turn, usually returning to the same spot. The sources generally agree that it takes two tempi,(113) and this is certainly the case with the volta del gioioso, which is the most common type of voltatonda. The volta in piva, on the other hand, often does take only one bar. Both of these voltetonde are discussed more fully below.

A larger-than-usual voltatonda, referred to as largha, occurs in Damnes in PnD, where two sempii and two doppii are used, while the second version of Fia Guielmina has a voltatonda done with three tempi of piva in PnD and four in Sc and MOe. Sobria in PnD also has a voltatonda done with four tempi of piva.

A voltatonda presta is mentioned in Zoglioxa in PnD. It is unclear what is meant, but it is perhaps a one-beat spin. A one-beat voltatonda also seems to occur at the end of the first section of the second version of Fia Guielmina in PnD.

Other unusual voltetonde are found in Amoroso (for three), in Sc, which has a reverenza done with a voltatonda (perhaps just a reverenza followed by a voltatonda done with a doppio), and a voltatonda done apparently with three people holding hands. In Mastri di Toboni in Fl there is a "volta di troboni".

The voltatonda is ornamented with extra movements(114) and mentioned by Cornazano as one of the steps to be performed with diversity.(115) Because there are many ways of doing the voltatonda, this obeys the injunction regarding diversity, and the individual steps making up the voltatonda could presumably be ornamented in the same way as they are when done alone.

The volta del gioioso is not referred to with that name in PnD, only occurring in Damnes, Jupiter, Mercantia and Verceppe, and is often described rather than named in other sources as well. It is also called a volta or voltatonda in or di bassadanza, and may be what is expected whenever a non-specified voltatonda is done in bassadanza tempo. It is always done in bassadanza tempo, and always starts on the right foot, turning counterclockwise. Voltetonde in bassadanza occasionally use other steps, such as two doppii used in Rostiboli per Tre in NYp, and what appears to be two riprese in Corona in PnD and Rvat.

The volta del gioioso consists of two sempii and a ripresa. Some descriptions sound as if the sempii are the voltatonda, while the ripresa comes after, while others clearly have a ripresa in volta as part of the step. This may be merely two different ways of describing the same figure, or it may indicate slight differences in the way that a volta del gioioso was performed. We have taken it as meaning the same thing, presuming a pivot turn on the upbeat of a ripresa is the same thing as a ripresa in volta, but if the ripresa in volta was actually done by turning throughout the entire ripresa, then this would produce a slightly different method. It seems unlikely that a full voltatonda, returning to the same spot, was meant to be done with the two sempii, as the ripresa would then move the dancer to the side. In Alesandresca, a voltatonda which seems to consist of a sempio and a doppio in PnA, Nyp, and other sources becomes a volta del gioioso in Sc and FOLj. It is possible that this indicates another way of doing a volta del gioioso.

Another common type of voltatonda is one done with a doppio, or four steps, and taking either one bar of quadernaria or two of piva. The sources do not agree on a term for this step, nor on one way of doing it. In the dance Belfiore, for instance, PnD describes a voltatonda as being done with "pasi quatro sempii picoli"; PnA uses "un passo doppio", and Sc has "voltatonda im piva". The term "volta in piva" comes from the list of steps in Sc (also NYp).(116) The list also has "passi sempii in volta" which may actually be a more correct name; it is possible the volta in piva meant a voltatonda done with two piva steps rather than three or four steps, done turning, in two bars of piva. (The term "voltatonda in piva" is not exclusively used for a three- or four-step voltatonda; it is used in Rvat, at the end of Sobria, where the woman does a turn with four pive. Notably, the same voltatonda in PnD, and earlier in Rvat, is described, such as by saying 'in piva una voltatonda'; perhaps the term was usually avoided if it was not being used to mean a three- or four-step turn.)

Our decision is that any voltatonda done in one bar of quadernaria or in two bars of piva and which is described as a doppio or as three or four sempii or steps, or has no steps specified, is a volta in piva. Because it is easier to do a full circle with four steps than three, we use four steps unless it is clear that the next step immediately following is on the opposite foot. Because of using both a doppio and four steps, we chose not to have a specific term used in the dance instructions, but have described the step each time.

Related to the volta in piva is the voltatonda using "tri sempii cum uno salteto", which occurs in the second version of Fia Guielmina in PnD, and the voltatonda done with "tri sempii e una meza represe" from Leoncello Novo, also in PnD.

1. PnD line 107, Rvat line 364, Sc line 1348.
2. See for example Alesandresca (PnA vs FOLj), Diamente (NYp vs Sc), Ginevra (PnA vs Sc), Lauro (NYp vs Fn), and the beginning of Venus (NYp vs Fn).
3. Examples are Corta and Duchessa.
4. Brainard p.35.
5. Brainard p.28.
6. Rvat line 255.
7. Corona (PnD), though possibly an error as there may be riprese left out, Marchesana (PnA and PnG), Mastri di Tromboni (Fl), and Zoglioxa (PnD).
8. See for instance, Damnes, where PnD says "doe continentie ... cominciando col pe sinistro", where PnG has "due continenze sul pe sinistro".
9. See, for example, Bassa Franzesse, Chastelana, and Chorona Gentile, all in NYp.
10. "quattro continenze cominciando col dritto et facendo fine al dritto".
11. See Belreguardo (PnD has two continenze and a reverenza where PnA has four continenze), Caterva (PnA vs NYp), Flandesca (PnA vs NYp), Ginevra (Sc vs PnA), Gioliva (Sc vs PnA), Gratiosa (PnA vs NYp), Marchesana (PnD, PnA, NYp and Fn all have different sequences of continenze and reverenze), Mignotta Vecchia (PnD vs Sc and Fn), Pazienza (PnA vs NYp and Fn), Prexonera (PnA vs PnD and Sc), Principessa (PnA vs NYp), and Reale (PnA, FOLj, NYp and Sc all have different sequences of continenze and reverenze).
12. Rvat line 138.
13. PnA line 458.
14. Rvat line 319.
15. Rvat line 282.
16. Rvat line 365, also Sc line 1351. The timing given in NYp is different, and unclear.
17. Examples of two contrapassi occur in Belfiore, in PnG and others, where two doppii and a sempii replace PnD's three doppii, Corona in PnD, Mignotta (vecchia), in PnG and others, and Prexonera in PnD.
18. Compare Belreguardo in PnD and NYp, Leoncello (vecchio) in PnA and NYp, Leoncello (nova), in the last sequence of contrapassi, in NYp and Rvat, and Marchesana in PnA and NYp. They also occur in NYp in Belreguardo (novo) and Graziosa, and in Fortuna, where two are done forward and then two backwards.
19. PnD line 109.
20. PnD line 106, Rvat line 362, Sc line 1345.
21. Belfiore in PnG has a doppio which ends with "riduca il pie dritto al stancho et ferma si". Mignotta and Mignotta Nova in PnD each have a doppio followed by a sempio in the vuodo. Gratioso, Marchesana, Rosina, Goioso (Rostiboli), and Spero, all in NYp, have a doppio ending by putting the point of the foot forward. Belfiore, where PnG has a voltatonda done with a doppio, has four sempii picoli in PnD. (This may be evidence that the doppio is done with four steps, but more likely indicates that the voltatonda is done with three or four steps.)
22. Diamante in NYp, and Mercantia in PnD which has "uno dopio comenzando al pe drito e dagando una mezavolta sul lato drito in tempo vuodo". <>23. Belreguardo and Zoglioxa in PnD.
24. Fia Guielmina in PnD.
25. Rvat line 119.
26. PnD line 119.
27. Rvat line 138.
28. Rvat line 120, also PnA line 458 and line 485.
29. Examples include a doppio used for a voltatonda, (such as in Anello in PnD), doppio ending with a movimento (Fia Guielmina, second version, in PnD) or finishing by closing (Belfiore in PnG) or putting the other foot forward (Gratioso in NYp).
30. See Angelosa and Vita di Cholino in NYp.
31. PnD line 107.
32. Rvat line 367, and Sc line 1347.
33. Examples where the mezavolta is specifically mentioned as occurring in the vuodo, which would be 1/4 (or 1/6) of a bar, are in Damnes, Mercantia and Prexonera in PnD, while Cupido in NYp has a mezavolta at the end of a sempio, which only leaves 1/4 of a bar to do it in.
34. See for example Diamente, where NYp has a doppio ending with a mezavolta and then a ripresa, while Sc and MOe have a doppio, and then a ripresa in volta.
35. Instead of a foot on which the mezavolta is done being specified, sometimes a side is given, as in Marchesana, where PnA has "mecavolta sul pe dricto" and PnD has "mezavolta suxo lo lato drito". In either case the turn is done in that direction.
36. Anello in PnD, Diamante in NYp, Leoncello (vecchio) in PnD.
37. Spero in NYp.
38. Corona in PnD.
39. Jupiter in PnD.
40. Fia Guielmina, second version, in PnD.
41. Voltati in Ca Rosina in PnA has "in quel tempo del doppio quello di Meco daga mecavolta", and may be a mezavolta done as a doppio, or merely while the other dancers do one. Spero in PnA doesn't say mezavolta, but clearly intends a mezavolta to be performed, saying "l'home se volte con un doppio al contrario Delle donne".
42. Ingrata in PnD and others.
43. Gelosia and Tesara in PnD.
44. Mercantia in PnD and others. Mercantia also has unspecified mezevolte occurring in a short bar of music in two places.
45. PnD line 121.
46. See the two versions of Leoncello (vecchio) in Sc.
47. Florio has "Scóssa, a shaking, a tottring, a tumbling, a rumbling, a trembling", "Scósso, shaken, tossed, totred, rumbled" and "Scossóre, to shake, to tosse, to totter. Also to brandish in the aire", from Draskoy.
48. Florio has "Alzáta, a raising, an advancing, a heaving or lifting up" and "Alzare, to advance, to raise, to hoise, to heave, to rere, to elevate, or lift up", from Draskoy.
49. PnD line 107.
50. Rvat line 369.
51. Rvat line 314.
52. An exception is the second version of Fia Guielmina.
53. PnA line 459.
54. See for instance, Anello in PnD, which starts with eight tempi of saltarello, beginning on the left, so presumably the left foot would then be free. Then there is a pair of movimenti, and the next step is again on the left foot. In this case, the movimento does not change the weight. This pattern of not shifting weight repeats through the dance until the end. There, after doing a series of four movimenti (men, women, men, then women) the men do a ripresa right. This time the weight does shift. Leoncello (vecchio) in PnD starts with six saltarelli starting left, so they end ready to move on the left again. Then, after a pair of movimenti, the man does a saltarello right, so here the movimento shifts weight. At the end they do riprese right, and then a pair of movimenti, followed by a repeat of the dance, which starts on the left, so in this case no shift in weight occurs.
55. In particular see PnD lines 179-190.
56. NYp, Sc, and MOe, in the middle of listing steps, do mention tempi di piva, but do not mention it as a step.
57. Smith's translation is "Piva is nothing else than doppi, altered and accelerated by the quickness of the misura ..."
58. An example is in Sobria in PnD, where three couples start, each four steps apart. The woman at the front does three pive to reach the center of the other four dancers, a distance of six steps. Another example is in Amoroso in NYp, where the dancers each move forward with two passi, a piva and three passi, and then return with three pive and a passo, this resulting in a piva covering the same distance as two passi.
59. As an extreme example, the dance Tesara has the two men at the end change places with four pive, passing through the middle of four couples, who are spaced three steps apart. Presuming that the two outer men also started three steps from the closest couple, they are travelling a distance of 15 steps with only four pive.
60. Rvat line 223.
61. PnD line 106.
62. In PnD, Belreguardo adds "uno poco di reverentia" to a doppio; Sobria has a doppio performed with a "riverentia picola et presta"; and Zoglioxa has a "reverenzia picolla" done in the same bar as a doppio.
63. Vita di Cholino in NYp has a "riverenzia picina" taking half a bar, and in Rosina, another dance from NYp, there is also a "riverenza picina" which from the context probably takes half a bar. Reverenza picina does not necessarily refer to a shortness in time, however, as in Fortuna in NYp one dancer does a reverenza picina during the same time that another dancer does a full reverenza.
64. For examples of women instructed to do a reverenza on a given foot, see Amoroso, Bialre di Chastiglia, and Goioso Spangnuolo all in NYp, and Moza di Bischare in Fl.
65. Weight can, however, be transferred at the end, as sometimes two reverenze occur, on opposite feet, one after the other. See, for instance, Moza di Bischare, in Fl.
66. See Angelosa, Bassa Franzesse, Fortuna, Fraza Mignion Franzesse, and Goioso Spangnuolo, all in NYp, and Iupiter in Fl.
67. Riverenzetta also occurs in Gratiosa, in NYp, but there is no explanatory description included with it.
68. PnD line 106, Rvat line 363, Sc line 1346.
69. The dance Rostiboli, in NYp, makes it evident that the riprese do not move entirely forward or backward, as, after leaving his partner with two sempii and two doppii, and doing two riprese, the man returns with the same two sempii and two doppii.
70. An early example of this is the second galliard variation in Compasso's Ballo della Gagliarda from 1560, which is "Le ripresa in sotto piedo per fiancho."
71. For evidence of this, see Damnes in PnD where the men back up with three riprese in gallone and later return with two sempii and two doppii, although there are some other steps in between with which the dancers could cheat and move forward. Partita Crudele in NYp has the dancers also separating with three riprese portugalese, nearly returning with two sempii and a doppio. In Pietosa in PnG and others, the dancers separate with two doppii and return with two riprese in gallone.
72. This was pointed out by D. Elson on the Rendance mailing list, 10 Sep 1993, in a message entitled "My answers to the questions (long)".
73. PnD line 119.
74. Rvat line 138.
75. Rvat line 255.
76. PnA line 458.
77. Rvat line 319.
78. The term riprese on one foot is similar to doppio on one foot, which is another name for the contrapasso. See also that section.
79. Examples of what seem to be this meza ripresa are in the first version of Fia Guielmina, Mercantia, Pizocara, Tesara and Sobria, in PnD, all referred to as "riprese suso uno pede", and usually including the term "in traverso". The other sources for these dances either use "in traverso" or no qualifier at all. Fortuna, Santomera and Bialre di Chastiglia, in NYp, all have sequences of four meze riprese. Descriptions of what may be the saltarello tedesco also include them. See the Saltarello Tedesco section for more.
80. This is suggested by Smith, p.115, n.5.
81. Mercantia in PnD has the men at the back separate with six riprese, but later return (even going further, as they have to reach the woman who was in front of them), with two sempii and a doppio. Sobria, the matching dance in the same manuscript, has the separation done with only four riprese, but the return is accomplished in a single doppio.
82. For evidence, see Sparti, p. 224.
83. Sc line 1329.
84. See for example Gratiosa, where NYp has the dancers turn at the end of a doppio and then do a ripresa, where Sc has a doppio and then a ripresa in volta.
85. Examples are in both versions of Belreguardo in PnD, in Leoncello (vecchio), in PnD, Sc and MOe, and Mignotta Nova in Rvat.
86. PnD line 315.
87. Vnm line 3. Smith's translation is "The saltarello [is] a doppio [in which] the salto [follows] on the foot on the same side."
88. Rvat line 183. Smith's translation is "It consists only of doppi, ondeggiato as a consequence of elevating during the second short step which touches down in the middle of the one tempo and the next .."
89. See Rvat line 119.
90. For more on the early history of the galliard, with references to the saltarello, see Sparti's introduction of Compasso.
91. PnD line 187, also Rvat line 1152.
92. Examples are at the beginning of Mercanzia, Sobria and Vercepe, only in PnD; in the middle of Belreguardo and Ingrata, also only in PnD; and in the middle of Jupiter, where it appears in most of the other sources but not in PnD.
93. PnD line 180.
94. This occurs very definitely in some places in Sobria, Tesara and Pizocara, where the music appears as series of three semibreves (sometimes black) and, to a lesser extent, in Belreguardo, Ingrata, Mercanzia and Prexonera, where a quarter-eighth-eighth-quarter sequence is seen.
95. Rvat lines 184 and 228.
96. PnA line 459.
97. The woman is specifically mentioned, but it is presumed that the man is permitted to be at least as adventuresome.
98. Rvat line 231.
99. Rvat line 293.
100. Examples of exceptions are in NYp at the beginning of Gratiosa where "pasi di saltarelo todescho" occurs, and the beginning of Spero, in PnG, where there is "doppii in todescho".
101. Compare, for example, the beginning of Gelosia in PnD, PnA and NYp, and the beginning of Gratiosa in Sc and PnA.
102. PnD line 271.
103. PnD line 301.
104. Rvat line 191.
105. For instance, Graziosa, in PnG and others, starts with three saltarelli tedesci starting on the left, and then has a doppio right; Jupiter in NYp also begins with three saltarelli tedesci starting on the left, and then has a volta del gioioso on the right, while Legiadra has a saltarello tedesco left, done by one woman, followed by a ripresa right.
106. PnD line 107, Rvat line 361, Sc line 1344.
107. Passo is also used to refer to a dance step of any sort, in the same way that the word step in English can mean both the motion of moving one foot forward, and the general term for any dance movement.
108. PnD line 118.
109. Rvat line 138.
110. PnA line 457.
111. PnA line 484.
112. This uncertainty is due to PnA saying that the shoulder shading is continued until the end of the tempo in which a sempio or doppio is being performed. (PnD line 489)
113. PnD line 108, Rvat line 366. Sc line 1350 says "Tucta volta et due tempi", but NYp in the same place has un, which is perhaps a mistake.
114. PnD, line 119
115. Rvat line 139.
116. Sc line 1331.